However, the opposite is also true—emotional responses can trigger bodily changes before signaling the cortex, before we are consciously aware of any emotional state.

我不喜歡一開始將情緒稱為非理性的描述，情緒那是作為生物機器非常有效的規避危險作出合理抉擇和社交的作用。尤其是如果忽略社會性的意義，那麼很多情緒將被定義為無理性=放棄理解。正想吐槽一開始將情緒歸成感受與表達是二元分割，表達的過程也是感受的一部份就提到了⋯⋯好吧我應該繼續看下去再吐槽對不起。

p.35
A helpful distinction for sorting noncognitively-generated and cognitively- generated emotions is that of Damasio, who distinguishes between "primary" and "secondary" emotions (Damasio, 1994).

Damasio writes that there are certain features of stimuli in the world that we respond to emotionally first, and that activate a corresponding cognitive state secondarily.

p.36
Babies demonstrate a less complicated repertoire of emotions than cogitating adults, presumably because of their lack of experience and not because of usage of social display rules.

Babies also apparently lack the ability to construct "self-conscious" cognitive emotions such as shame and guilt, which develop later in childhood once a sense of identity is established (Lewis, 1993).

p.41
Not only does mood influence judgments about seemingly objective events, but it also influences memory retrieval.

Memory retrieval is largely a mystery, but there is increasing evidence that emotions play a role in its function. Memory may be the chief mechanism through which emotions enter into the mental associations active in analogical thinking and creativity.

接下來是另一本 The Oxford Handbook of Affective Computing

p.543
Affective Computing aims to represent, detect, and analyze nonverbal behavior in an attempt to model affective phenomena in human-computer interaction (HCI).

Affect sensitive HCI is relevant in numerous application areas, such as learning technologies, security and surveillance, health care, interactive gaming and entertainment, sales and advertising, smart homes, remote collaboration, social monitoring, automated behavior research, and many others.

p.544
Emotion is a complex set of interactions amongst subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can

(a) give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure;
(b. generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual effects, appraisals, labeling processes;
(c) activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions;

and (d) lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal-directed, and adaptive.

This quotation captures two important and consensual aspects of emotion: (1) as a reaction to events deemed relevant to the needs, goals, or concerns of an individual and (2) as an experience encompassing physiological, affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

p.53
Traditionally, emotions have often been regarded as maladaptive (because, it was held, they interfere with rational thinking and decision-making; see, e.g., Roberts, 2013).

In contrast, during the past 20 or so years, emotions have increasingly come to be seen as overall adaptive (e.g., Feldman-Barrett & Salovey, 2002; Frijda, 1994). Some theorists even regard emotions as indispensable for adaptive behavior (e.g., Damasio, 1994).

立刻變得明晰起來！

Five Questions of Emotion Psychology
(Q1) how emotions are elicited or generated;
(Q2) what effects (in particular what adaptive or functional effects) emotions have on subsequent cognitive processes and behavior,

(Q3) what emotions themselves are—how they are to be theoretically defined, what kinds of mental and computational states they are.

to achieve this goal it is helpful, and even necessary, to address a further question that is also of independent interest, one that concerns the origins of the emotion system; namely (Q4), which parts of the emotion system are inherited and which are acquired through learning?

(Q5) how emotions are biologically realized or implemented (i.e., which neural structures and processes underlie them).

p.61
The informational or epistemic function of emotions consists in providing adaptively useful information to other cognitive (sub-)systems, including other agents. This information presumably concerns

(a) the results of (unconscious) appraisal processes (e.g., Schwarz & Clore, 2007) or the occurrence of changes in the person’s belief-desire system (Reisenzein, 2009a) and/or

(b ) closely related to this, information about the value of objects and events, including actions and their consequences (e.g., Damasio, 1994; Meinong, 1894; Slovic, Peters, Finucane, & MacGregor, 2005).

p.68
The limbic system theory of emotion became highly influential; in fact, it dominated neurophysiological theorizing on emotions until the 1990s. Since then, however, the theory has been strongly criticized (e.g., Kotter & Meyer, 1992; LeDoux, 1998; 2012).

The basic criticism is that, contrary to MacLean’s claims, the structures subsumed under the name “limbic system” are neither neuroanatomically nor phylogenetically clearly distinct from the rest of the brain and hence do not really form a separate processing system.

p.77
Bidirectional projections underpin emotional experience, such that the brain impacts on the body via visceral efferent pathways and the body impacts on the brain through afferent feedback.

This research, along with that of others (Wild, Rodden, Grodd, & Ruch, 2003), suggests that laughter may depend on two partially independent neuronal pathways: an “involuntary,” emotionally driven subcortical system and a cortical network that supports the human capacity for verbal joking.

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